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= Naga Peoples =
The '''Naga peoples''' are a collective of over 89 distinct ethnolinguistic communities residing in the hilly regions of '''Northeast India''' and '''Northwest Myanmar'''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Oppitz |first=Michael |title=Naga Identities: Changing Local Cultures in Northeast India |last2=Kaiser |first2=Thomas |last3=von Stockhausen |first3=Alban |last4=Wettstein |first4=Marion |publisher=Snoeck Publishers |year=2008 |location=Ghent}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Wouters |first=Jelle J.P. |title=Nagas in the 21st Century: Society, Culture, and Political Imagination |last4=Heneise |first4=Michael T. |publisher=Highlander Press |year=2017 |location=Kohima}}</ref> They are celebrated for their vibrant cultural practices, intricate textiles, complex oral traditions, and deep ecological knowledge.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Heneise |first=Michael T. |title=Agency and Knowledge in Northeast India: The Life and Landscapes of Dreams |publisher=Routledge |year=2018 |location=London}}</ref> Occupying a unique position at the intersection of '''South Asia''' and '''Southeast Asia''', the Naga peoples have navigated a rich history of autonomy, colonial encounters, and modern political struggles.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wouters |first=Jelle J.P. |title=In the Shadow of Naga Insurgency: Tribes, State, and Violence in Northeast India |publisher=Oxford |year=2018 |location=Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Joshi |first=Vibha |title=A Matter of Belief: Christian Conversion and Healing in Northeast india |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2012 |location=New York}}</ref>
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[[File:Heneise - Zenui village 2014.jpg|thumb|391x391px|Photo taken in Yangkhullen (Ze-Mnui) in Senapati, Manipur (Photo: Heneise 2014)]]


== '''Etymology''' ==
The term "Naga" is an '''exonym''', its origins debated among scholars. It may derive from:
* The Assamese term ''Naga'' or ''Noka'' (pierced ears),
* The Burmese word ''Naka'' (naked or bare).
While initially an outsider designation, it became a unifying identity during British colonial administration. Internally, most Naga communities identify themselves by tribal names such as '''Angami''', '''Ao''', or '''Tangkhul'''.
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== '''History''' ==
=== '''Precolonial Period''' ===
The Naga peoples traditionally lived in '''autonomous village-states''', organized around clans with a '''council of elders''' responsible for governance. Oral traditions record histories of migration, trade, and warfare. The ''Feasts of Merit'', elaborate community rituals, symbolized social hierarchy and wealth redistribution. Practices like '''headhunting''', linked to spiritual beliefs and inter-village competition, were prominent until colonial interventions​​.
=== '''Colonial Era''' ===
The British encountered the Nagas in the early 19th century while expanding their empire into the northeastern frontiers. This period saw:
* Suppression of headhunting practices,
* Introduction of '''Christianity''' through American and British missionaries, which profoundly altered spiritual and social systems,
* Collection and documentation of Naga artifacts by anthropologists like '''J.H. Hutton''' and '''Christoph von Fürer-Haimendorf''', now held in museums worldwide.
Colonial rule fragmented Naga societies, as British policies drew arbitrary boundaries that later divided the Naga territories between India and Myanmar​​.
=== '''Post-Independence''' ===
After India and Myanmar gained independence, the Nagas launched a political movement for sovereignty. The concept of ''Nagalim'' (Greater Nagaland) encapsulated aspirations for a unified homeland. However, internal divisions and external geopolitical challenges continue to shape their struggle. A ceasefire agreement in 1997 between the Indian government and the '''National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN)''' remains a key milestone, though tensions persist​​.
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== '''Geographic Distribution''' ==
=== '''In India''' ===
# '''Nagaland''': Angami, Ao, Chakhesang, Khiamniungan, Konyak, Lotha, Phom, Pochury, Rengma, Sangtam, Sumi, Yimkhiung, Zeliang.
# '''Manipur''': Tangkhul, Mao, Poumai, Maram, Tarao, Anal.
# '''Arunachal Pradesh''': Wancho, Nokte, Tangsa, Tutsa.
# '''Assam''': Rengma.
=== '''In Myanmar''' ===
# Konyak
# Lainong
# Makury
# Tangshang
# Somra Tangkhul
These communities occupy villages across the Naga Self-Administered Zone, Sagaing Region, and parts of Kachin State.
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== '''Languages''' ==
The Naga languages belong to the '''Tibeto-Burman family''', reflecting significant linguistic diversity:
* Over 89 distinct languages, often mutually unintelligible.
* '''Nagamese''', a creole based on Assamese, serves as a lingua franca.
* '''English''' is the official language of Nagaland and widely used in education and governance​​.
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== '''Cultural Practices''' ==
=== '''Textiles''' ===
Naga textiles are renowned for their bold geometric patterns, symbolic motifs, and vibrant colors. Each design represents tribal identity, social status, and ritual significance. Museums such as the '''Pitt Rivers Museum (Oxford)''' and '''Humboldt Museum (Berlin)''' house extensive collections of Naga textiles, often acquired during colonial expeditions.
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== '''Spiritual Beliefs''' ==
=== '''Traditional Beliefs''' ===
The traditional cosmology of the Naga peoples was animistic, deeply intertwined with ancestor worship and reverence for natural elements. Their worldview centered around spirits (''terhuomia'') and deities associated with specific landscapes, such as mountains, forests, rivers, and animals. Among the most iconic of their myths is the ''tekhumiavi'' (tiger-man), a transformative figure symbolizing the connection between human and animal realms. This myth reflects their understanding of human-animal relationships, transformation, and interdependence in the natural world​​.
Festivals, rituals, and community practices were designed to appease these spirits and ensure harmony with nature. Headhunting, for instance, was not merely a martial practice but also a spiritual act believed to enhance fertility and communal vitality​​.
=== '''Introduction of Christianity''' ===
The late 19th and early 20th centuries marked a transformative period for the Naga peoples, with the arrival of '''Christian missionaries''', particularly the American Baptist Mission. Evangelism gained momentum, and by the mid-20th century, large-scale conversions to Christianity had taken place. This shift led to significant changes:
* Replacement of traditional animist practices with Christian rituals,
* Transformation of social structures through church organizations,
* Adoption of Western-style education introduced by missionary schools​​.
Christianity’s influence was most pronounced in '''Nagaland''', which became predominantly Baptist. As of the 2011 census, Nagaland had 1,745,181 Christians, making it one of the few Christian-majority states in India. The state is often described as "the most Baptist state in the world"​​.
=== '''Contemporary Religious Landscape''' ===
Today, Christianity dominates the religious identity of most Naga communities, both in '''Nagaland''' and parts of '''Myanmar'''. The Nagas’ Christian practices are often localized, blending with traditional beliefs. Syncretic forms of Christianity include:
* Retention of animistic elements in festivals,
* Use of indigenous music and textiles in church ceremonies,
* Commemoration of ancestors alongside Christian saints.
While the majority of Nagas identify as Christians, smaller communities, particularly in Myanmar, continue to practice traditional animism, albeit often in a hybridized form​​.
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== '''Festivals''' ==
=== '''Hornbill Festival''' ===
The Hornbill Festival, often referred to as the "Festival of Festivals," is a premier cultural event in Nagaland, India. Initiated by the Government of Nagaland in December 2000, the festival aims to promote inter-tribal interaction and preserve the cultural heritage of the state. Held annually from December 1st to 10th at the Kisama Heritage Village near Kohima, the festival is named after the hornbill bird, a creature revered in Naga folklore. The event features a vibrant array of activities, including traditional dances, music performances, indigenous games, and exhibitions of arts and crafts, providing visitors with an immersive experience of Naga culture.
=== '''Tribe-Specific Festivals''' ===
Each Naga tribe celebrates its unique festivals, reflecting their distinct cultural practices and agricultural traditions.
* '''Moatsü Festival (Ao Tribe):''' Celebrated by the Ao tribe, the Moatsü Festival marks the completion of sowing and other agricultural activities. Observed in the first week of May, it is a time for feasting, dancing, and community bonding, serving as a period of relaxation and enjoyment after the labor-intensive planting season.  Wikipedia
* '''Sekrenyi Festival (Angami Tribe):''' The Angami tribe celebrates Sekrenyi, also known as the "Festival of Purification," in February. This ten-day festival involves rituals of cleansing and renewal, symbolizing the purification of the body and soul. Traditional songs, dances, and feasts are integral parts of the celebration, reinforcing social ties and cultural identity.  Explore Nagaland
* '''Aoleang Festival (Konyak Tribe):''' The Konyak tribe observes the Aoleang Festival in April to welcome the new year and pray for a bountiful harvest. The festival spans six days, featuring traditional dances, songs, and rituals that honor the deities and ancestors, reflecting the tribe's deep connection to their agrarian lifestyle and spiritual beliefs.
=== '''Other Notable Festivals''' ===
* '''Tsükhenye Festival (Chakhesang Tribe):''' Celebrated in April, Tsükhenye is a festival of purification and sanctification among the Chakhesang tribe. It includes rituals, community feasts, and traditional games, marking the transition from the old year to the new and seeking blessings for prosperity.
* '''Lui Ngai Ni (Nagas of Manipur):''' Observed on February 14th and 15th, Lui Ngai Ni is a seed-sowing festival celebrated by the Naga tribes of Manipur. It signifies the start of the agricultural season, with tribes coming together to perform traditional dances, songs, and rituals to invoke blessings for a fruitful harvest.
* '''Gaan-Ngai Festival (Zeliangrong Tribe):''' Celebrated by the Zeliangrong people in Assam, Manipur, and Nagaland, Gaan-Ngai is a post-harvest festival held in December or January. It involves rituals honoring the departed souls, community feasts, dances, and songs, reflecting the tribe's rich cultural heritage and spiritual beliefs.
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== '''Traditional Ecological Knowledge''' ==
Naga communities exemplify sustainable practices through:
# '''Shifting Cultivation (Jhum)''': A rotational farming method promoting biodiversity.
# '''Ethnomedicine''': Use of herbs and spiritual practices for healing.
# '''Sacred Groves''': Protected forest areas integral to their spiritual and ecological ethos​​.
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== '''Museum Collections and Repatriation''' ==
Artifacts from Naga communities, including textiles, weapons, and jewelry, are held in global museums:
* '''Pitt Rivers Museum''', Oxford.
* '''Museum Rietberg''', Zurich.
* '''Humboldt Museum''', Berlin.
These collections have sparked debates about the ethics of acquisition during colonial rule. '''Repatriation efforts''' emphasize the return of sacred objects and ancestral remains to their communities of origin​​.
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== '''Contemporary Challenges''' ==
# '''Political Fragmentation''': The division of Naga territories across two nations complicates their governance and unity.
# '''Cultural Erosion''': Urbanization and globalization threaten traditional knowledge systems.
# '''Environmental Threats''': Deforestation and climate change disrupt their ecological foundations​​.
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== '''Further Reading''' ==
# Hutton, J.H. ''The Angami Nagas''. Cambridge University Press, 1921.
# Fürer-Haimendorf, Christoph von. ''The Naked Nagas''. Methuen, 1939.
# Oppitz, Michael, et al. ''Naga Identities: Changing Local Cultures in Northeast India''. Snoeck Publishers, 2008.
# Elwin, Verrier. ''The Nagas in the Nineteenth Century''. Oxford University Press, 1969.
# Wouters, Jelle J.P., and Heneise, Michael T. ''Nagas in the 21st Century''. Kohima Institute Press, 2017.
# Longkumer, Arkotong. ''Reform, Identity, and Narratives of Belonging''. Continuum, 2010.
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== '''External Links''' ==
* [[/www.nagalandtourism.com|Hornbill Festival Official Site]]
* Pitt Rivers Museum - Naga Collections
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== '''References''' ==
=== '''Academic Sources''' ===
# Elwin, Verrier. ''The Nagas in the Nineteenth Century.'' London: Oxford University Press, 1969.
# Heneise, Michael T. ''The Naga Tiger-Man and the Modern Assemblage of a Myth.''
# Heneise, Michael T. ''Agency and Knowledge in Northeast India: The Life and Landscapes of Dreams.'' London: Routledge, 2018.
# Hutton, J.H. ''The Angami Nagas.'' London: Macmillan, 1921.
# Hutton, J.H. ''The Sema Nagas.'' London: Macmillan, 1921.
# Joshi, Vibha. ''A Matter of Belief: Christian Conversion and Healing in Northeast India.'' New York: Berghahn Books, 2012.
# Mills, J.P. ''The Lhota Nagas.'' London: Macmillan, 1922.
# Mills, J.P. ''The Rengma Nagas.'' London: Macmillan, 1937.
# Mills, J.P. ''The Ao Nagas.'' London: Macmillan, 1926.
# Oppitz, Michael, Thomas Kaiser, Alban von Stockhausen, and Marion Wettstein. ''Naga Identities: Changing Local Cultures in Northeast India.'' Ghent: Snoeck Publishers, 2008.
# Wouters, Jelle J.P. ''In the Shadow of Naga Insurgency: Tribes, State, and Violence in Northeast India.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.
# Wouters, Jelle J.P., and Michael T. Heneise. ''Highland Asia as a World Region: An Introduction.''
# Wouters, Jelle J.P., and Michael T. Heneise. ''Nagas in the 21st Century: Society, Culture, and the Political Imagination.'' Kohima: Kohima Institute, 2017.
==== '''Online and Accessible Sources''' ====
# "Hornbill Festival." ''Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia.'' Accessed November 23, 2024. [[/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hornbill Festival|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hornbill_Festival]].
# "Explore Nagaland: Festivals of Nagaland." ''Explore Nagaland.'' Accessed November 23, 2024. <nowiki>https://www.explorenagaland.com/festivals-of-nagaland</nowiki>.
# "Ao Naga." ''Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia.'' Accessed November 23, 2024. [[/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ao Naga|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ao_Naga]].
# "Moatsü Festival." ''Nagaland Tourism Official Website.'' Accessed November 23, 2024. <nowiki>https://nagalandtourism.com/festivals/moatsu-festival/</nowiki>.
# "Sekrenyi Festival: Explore Nagaland." ''Explore Nagaland.'' Accessed November 23, 2024. <nowiki>https://www.explorenagaland.com/festivals-of-nagaland</nowiki>.
# "Travel Triangle: Festivals of Nagaland." ''Travel Triangle.'' Accessed November 23, 2024. <nowiki>https://traveltriangle.com/blog/festivals-in-nagaland/</nowiki>.
# "Aoleang Festival." ''Nagaland Tourism Official Website.'' Accessed November 23, 2024. <nowiki>https://nagalandtourism.com/festivals/aoleang/</nowiki>.
# "Popular Festivals Celebrated in Nagaland." ''Tusk Travel.'' Accessed November 23, 2024. <nowiki>https://www.tusktravel.com/blog/popular-festivals-celebrated-in-nagaland/</nowiki>.
# "List of Traditional Naga Festivals." ''Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia.'' Accessed November 23, 2024. [[/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List of traditional Naga festivals|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_traditional_Naga_festivals]].
# "Lui Ngai Ni Festival of Unity and Identity." ''Nagaland Post.'' Accessed November 23, 2024. <nowiki>https://nagalandpost.com/lui-ngai-ni-festival-of-unity-and-identity/</nowiki>.
# "Gaan-Ngai Festival." ''Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia.'' Accessed November 23, 2024. [[/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaan-Ngai|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaan-Ngai]].
# "Nagaland Tourism: Festivals of the Zeliangrong People." ''Nagaland Tourism Official Website.'' Accessed November 23, 2024. <nowiki>https://nagalandtourism.com/festivals/gaan-ngai/</nowiki>.
# "Nagas - Their History, Life, and Customs." ''Facts and Details.'' Accessed November 23, 2024. [[/factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Myanmar/sub5 5d/entry-3933.html|https://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Myanmar/sub5_5d/entry-3933.html]].
# "Traditional and Cultural Celebrations in Nagaland." ''Tusk Travel.'' Accessed November 23, 2024. <nowiki>https://www.tusktravel.com/blog/popular-festivals-celebrated-in-nagaland/</nowiki>.

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